The large-scale transoceanic pepper trade is also supported by the large ships that sailed to the ports of Limyrikê , where black pepper could be obtained . Only 1percent of all peppercorns originate from Shenshef. These peppercorns were scattered in several middens, were all preserved by desiccation, and can be considered as specimens that got lost. The peppercorns found at Berenike, on the other hand, can be interpreted in a different way. Most of them were unearthed from trenches that revealed buildings either connected with trade or used for religious ceremonies . Obviously, these peppercorns were predominantly charred and represent 80 percent of all peppercorns found so far. The peppercorns that were found in the southeastern part of Berenike can be related to storage and were probably lost in transfer. Excavations in trench BE95/96/97-5 revealed that this area was leveled in the late first century BC to the first century AD and that a warehouse or storehouse was present during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, which was intensively used . A smaller number of charred and desiccated peppercorns was retrieved from a late Roman dump area , some 60 meters to the west. A second area in which many peppercorns were found is located in the northwestern part of Berenike. Less than one-third of these peppercorns are desiccated and were mainly unearthed from dump areas. The other part concerns charred peppercorns and were unearthed from trenches that revealed religious shrines and temples in the vicinity of the Serapis temple.

Trench BE96-16 evidenced pagan cult practices from the late second or early third to the late fourth to early fifth centuries AD. Relics that were found concern stone and bronze sculptural dedications, altars, inscriptions, plastic plant pot and about 100 wooden bowls, which were used for the worship of both the Roman imperial cult and the Palmyrene deity Yarhibol/Hierobol . In connection with one of the altars, a reasonable amount of charred peppercorns was found. To the author’s knowledge, black pepper has no tradition in religious ceremonies of India. The two other trenches, viz. BE94/95-1 and BE96/97/98/99-10, revealed installations that were probably connected with the Serapis temple. A spectacular find concerns a large supply of uncharred black peppercorns inside a large dolium in trench BE96/97/98/99-10 . The peppercorns had a total weight of well over 7.5 kg and filled up 42 percent of the dolium, whose volume is calculated at about 31 l . According to R. S. Tomber , the dolium is highly likely of Indian origin, suggesting that we are dealing with the original packing. In fact, this is the first food item that has been unearthed at Berenike that is clearly a stock item. Together with another empty, large jar, they were buried in what appeared to be the courtyard floor of the Serapis temple sometime in the late first century BC. or early first century AD. Judging by the price of pepper mentioned by Pliny, this amount of pepper had a value equivalent to enough wheat to supply the average Roman for two years. Although this pepper supply represents a considerable sum, it was obviously left behind.

An explanation might be that the inhabitants had to choose what to take with them and what to leave behind when leaving the city. The capacity of their beasts of burden would have forced them to make choices. Leaving behind such a stock of pepper could indicate that large supplies were present indeed. It is also possible that the pepper was meant for offering and that prohibitory rules prevented other use. Judging from the concentration of charred peppercorns in connection with religious shrines and temples, it is very likely that most of them were once sacrificed at the sanctuaries found at Berenike rather than spoiled in food preparation. If used for flavoring food, pepper is ground without heating, and the chance that whole peppercorns become charred is very small. Apicius reports only the grilling or roasting of some smaller seeds before pounding, such as sesame and cumin . Once the peppercorns had been sacrificed, they were of no use anymore and would have been discarded. Their use as an offering is also supported by the relatively high percentage of charred peppercorns in relation with the total sub-fossil record of Berenike. In fact, only 7 percent of all sub-fossil fruits and seeds were preserved by charring, in which the peppercorns account for 47 percent of the complete charred assemblage. Offerings would have been connected with the risky life in the desert and the likewise dangerous long sea voyages. Ceremonies to propitiate the gods before departure and to thank them for a safe return have obviously left their marks, partly as charred peppercorns. Plant-food offerings from Roman funerary contexts consist predominantly of cereals, pulses, nuts, and stone fruits. In addition to local food plants, some exotic species were also regularly found, in which olive , fig , and date and possibly stone pine are mentioned .

Spices and condiments, on the other hand, are underrepresented as offerings, despite their availability. Only garlic , celery , coriander , gold-of-pleasure , and common verbena are reported, whereas others, including black pepper , are only known as food for the living. Only Piper nigrum has so far been found at Berenike and Shenshef. It seems as if all peppercorns have to be categorized as black pepper. Some specimens lack the characteristic folded fruit wall, but they are always accompanied with specimens that still have the wrinkled fruit wall. The absence of the fruit layer may be the result of preservation conditions. Besides large specimens, immature ones were also frequently found . This phenomenon is not exceptional, as fruits from a single spike do not ripen at the same time. As a result, all stages of development are present on the same spike, although in good spikes all fruits are about the same size when they are nearly ripe . Present evidence does not allow us to determine whether peppercorns were traded in different size classes only to be mixed in the deposits found at Berenike or whether they were imported from India unsorted. Leaving the liquids aside, long pepper is the only food product mentioned in written sources that has not been found so far, despite its characteristic morphological features. Obviously, the differences in price between long and black pepper, as mentioned by Pliny, does not bespeak their real share in trade, for not a single spike of long pepper has been found so far. Apparently, long pepper was not one of the staple articles of Rome’s trade with India. In fact, long pepper has never been found so far in any archaeobotanical research.The recorded number of peppercorns from Berenike and Shenshef sharply contrasts with the archaeobotanical evidence of black pepper from other areas of the ancient world. First of all, it is striking that until now peppercorns have not been recorded from India by sub-fossil remains. One reason is that only a limited number of historical sites have been excavated in India so far . Additionally, the very humid climatic conditions in the pepper-producing areas of India may have impacted on the preservation of pepper. In addition to Berenike and Shenshef, other Egyptian sites that have yielded peppercorns are Quseir alQadim, Mons Claudianus and Quasr Ibrim. Excavations at Quseir al-Qadim, located about 300 km north of Berenike, unearthed 25 peppercorns from deposits dated to the late Islamic period, and a smaller number was recovered from a Roman context . The Roman quarry settlement at Mons-Claudianus, about 100 km northwest of Quseir al-Qadim, yielded only two desiccated peppercorns . Finally, one peppercorn was found in Qasr Ibrim . Pepper was a staple article of commerce between Rome and India, and the quantities passing through Berenike must have been enormous, allowing some waste of this spice as can be deduced from its presence in organic dumps. A remarkable find of peppercorns was made during a medical examination in Paris of the mummy of Ramses II, 30 litre plant pots which was aimed at protecting this mummy from further decay by microorganisms. Several peppercorns were found inside the body of the mummy and identified as P. nigrum . The most likely explanation for this early find, which is dated to 1290– 1224 BC , is that black pepper was occasionally available via trade routes over land or via the transoceanic trade. In the latter case, peppercorns from the Malabar coast must have been brought to the coastal area of northeast Africa, either by Indian or Arab seafarers. From there, the pepper must have been traded further to Egypt. Archaeobotanical evidence of Roman peppercorns outside Egypt are so far only available from a comparatively limited area of the Rhine-Danube Limes in Germany and France and from the Roman spa town of Bath in Great Britain .

The earliest find of pepper dated to the Roman period comes from the legionary settlement north of Oberaden . Eight peppercorns were found in cesspits, which are believed to represent both black and white pepper, as only part of the peppercorns were whole fruits. The legionary settlement only existed from 11–8/7 BC. If peppercorns found here were imported via Berenike or Myos Hormos, this would imply that the seaborne trade in peppercorns started not long after the Roman annexation of Egypt by Octavian in 30 BC. A second pepper find is recorded from Straubing . The 52 peppercorns found in the harbor were most probably lost while being unloaded. From a well in a Roman vicus at Hanau , 12 peppercorns were found . Nine specimens had still their wrinkled fruit wall present, indicating that we are dealing with black pepper. Obviously, all three German records are borderline cases. In this respect it is striking that pepper was not found in Neuss or Xanten, Roman frontier settlements where botanical remains have been thoroughly investigated. A single peppercorn from Biesheim-Kunheim, west of Freiburg, represents the only record from France and is dated to the second part of the first century AD . Again, this site is located along the Roman limes and is related to the presence of garrisons. Also related with the presence of the Roman army is the single peppercorn from the Roman spa town of Bath. It was found, among other food plants, namely grapes, figs, and coriander, in a ditch related to a building that was probably the headquarters of a high ranking military administrator and dates to the late first or early second century AD . All peppercorns from Germany, France, and Great Britain concern waterlogged specimens. Like the desiccated ones found in Shenshef, Quseir al-Qadim, and Mons Claudianus, they concern relatively small amounts that ended up unintentionally in the deposits from which they were retrieved. Possibly, people could not afford to use pepper as an offering, and its use as such at Berenike is explainable in the light of the presence of huge supplies. Basically the identification of white pepper in an archaeological context can only be assured to be correct if a substantial assemblage of sub-fossil peppercorns predominantly consist of specimens that lack the outer fruit layer, as is the case in modern samples. Because fruits do not develop at the same time, even samples of black pepper do contain small amounts of white peppercorns. Furthermore, the outer fruit wall of black peppercorns may disappear in the course of time due to preservation conditions. It seems, therefore, that at least the samples of peppercorns unearthed from Oberaden and Hanau concern black pepper indeed, despite the presence of some smooth specimens.The wild cherry plum grows in western and central Asia and probably also in the Balkan area. The cultivated cherry plums are quite resistant to frost and drought and are widespread in Europe and Anatolia . The fruits of the cherry plum can be eaten fresh, dried, or can be converted into compote, marmalade, or alcoholic beverages. For that reason, endocarps will be present in dried fruits and partly also in the compote, which can be made from whole fruits. Even halved, destoned fruits can be processed into compote.As the taxonomy of plums still has to take a definite shape, it may not be surprising that historical sources are difficult to interpret with respect to this group of species.