The yield response to changes in precipitation variability can depend on the qualitative nature of the variability and it is used to understand the impacts of climate changes. The results also suggest that the current atmospheric general circulation models yield inconsistent results concerning changes in mean precipitation at particular locations, and the sign and magnitude of any change in the inter annual variability is even less clear.However, the present results suggest that the qualitative nature of these changes may be a significant determinant of important agricultural impacts and which can help to devise mitigation mechanisms and develop adaptation plans.The study also suggested that there are opportunities to improve agriculture water productivity and implement integrated soil-water management strategies in rain-fed farming systems. This is so important especially for the development of mitigation measures and adaptation measures in similar farming systems.

For instance where livelihood improvement, food security and productivity increment is sought in rain fed agriculture-practicing areas of the region in general and in the study area considered, the Pandamatenga plains, in particular. These will also have a direct linkage in the vast lower rainfall and rain fed plains extending to southern Zambia, northern Namibia and northwestern Zimbabwe. services to support farmers to adjust cropping pattern and planting dates of cultivars; 3) encouragement and incentive measures for effectively use available rainwater and harvest excess runoff; and 4) strengthening contribution to awareness and public policy processes in an effort demonstrate the potential benefits of developing adaptation strategies in terms of the socio-economic, economic diversification benefits and ultimately improvement of food security of a nation or the region at large.In a recent survey conducted in the study area including farming communities in three districts in southern Zambia,it was found that a mix of various Conservation Farming and Climate Adaptation Practices .

The farmers have developed local and indigenous knowledge systems and they also appreciate how improvements in conservation farming, water harvesting, water access and climate resiliency could help them protect their deteriorating agricultural and livestock yields in their community. These practices included: 1) Dry-season land preparation using minimum tillage; 2) Crop residue retention; 3) Seeding and input application in fixed planting stations; 4) Nitrogen-fixing crop rotation; 5) Infield water conservation; 6)Crop-livestock system for soil fertility; 7) Crop-livestock system for income generation; and 8) Mixed farming of maize with soybeans, groundnuts, etc. These practices are there for possible adoption by other communities in similar agro-ecological conditions, if they are given the means and support them in agricultural productivity and household food security enhancement. As the regional impacts of climate change are wider than the local situation of this study area, this then highlights the need for out scaling of the mitigation measures. This outs caling becomes imperative to joint regional efforts of climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts especially in southern Africa.

These mitigation and adaptation mechanisms highlighted above can be considered for out scaling with the domain of Climate Smart Agriculture, in which the modeling approach and tool can be harnessed as a decision support tool.This will help understand and assess the various rain fed farming systems and interventions employed to improve productivity and enhance resilience of smallholder farmers against impacts of climate change and variability. In turn, the interventions can be used to assess the contribution of and effectiveness of achieving maximum net benefits of mitigation, adaptation and emission reduction.A typical modelling framework recommended in a study that attempts to understand climate change, agriculture and adaptation in a farming ecosystem is illustrated in Figure 8. For this, more computer simulations and research needs to be undertaken to address and understand the linkages of climate change, agriculture and adaptation including the complexity of feedback mechanisms that need to be incorporated across various spatial and temporal scales.

Sustainable rural development research has taken different approaches to the integration of management technologies in the search for a more holistic agricultural system, examples being Integrated Natural Resources Management, Integrated Water Resources Management,Integrated Soil and Nutrient Management, Integrated Crop and Livestock Management , Integrated Pest Management. These concepts are very common practices for farmers in southern Africa, who traditionally have implemented various mixed farming systems and farm practices appropriate to the local ecology. In order to enhance agricultural sustainability, a number of good localized examples of INRM exist,such as the farming systems research approach instituted by FAO.This approach basically aims at simultaneously improving livelihoods, agro-ecosystem resilience, agricultural productivity and the provision of environmental services by augmenting social, physical, human, natural and financial capital .