Considering the importance of nematodes and arthropod pests in agriculture, both veterinary and human pharmaceutical industries can potentially benefit from collaborations with agrochemical firms in this space. However, depending on the epidemiological settings, risks of emergence of resistance or reduced efficacy in humans due to the widespread use of a given compound or class in animals, not only should be anticipated, but should also be avoided, learning from the experiences with antimicrobial use. It would therefore be desirable that veterinary and human pharmaceuticals’ R&D efforts, while still synergising on potential repurposing efforts, would also deliver “complementary” therapeutic options that would allow for the sustainable and yet effective management of infections across all concerned host species, minimising the risks of resistances by relying on different modes of actions, when possible. Given the wider occurrence of parasites in animals compared to humans and considering the profitable market of veterinary parasiticides in the developed world , it should not be excluded that the experience generated in animal health R&D programmes could prove useful for humans too.

Because of this, establishing dedicated fora of communication exchange among human and veterinary pharmaceutical firms, in the spirit of the London Declaration, may bring benefits to global public health. At the same time, potential changes of distribution patterns of certain insect-borne NTDs , due to global warming, may lead, in future decades, to an increase of their prevalence in more mildly temperate high-income countries . This may provide an ROI-driven impetus prompting more R&D ventures, also in the area of vector control, for both developing and developed countries. Considering the review above, this concept note upholds a number of recommendations, to be taken into account when dealing with parasitic and arthropod-borne infections in Africa and beyond, in current COVID-19 times and further. Such recommendations not only are addressed to the attention of medical and veterinary parasitologists and entomologists, but also to the general public, social scientists, public health, pharmaceutical and biotech industry professionals and policy-makers. This appraisal underpins that, for it to be effective, the One Health approach should be adopted or, rather, embraced, through a holistic, global, interdisciplinary, multisectoral, harmonised and forward-looking set of actions .

Below will be provided elaborations for each of the adjectives used to define the One Health model here recommended.The global nature of this effort stems from the realisation that no public health issue has a merely local dimension, as it has been clearly shown by the COVID-19 pandemic. In the case of parasitic and vector-borne infections, there is no condition that can be considered as a null threat outside where it originates, especially if naïve areas of potential novel introduction harbour suitable habitats for the parasite or its intermediate host or vector to develop. For example, this is evidently the case for food-borne parasitoses that could be carried to significant distances through trade of food produces or for infections that can reach new areas through movement of infective vectors or intermediate hosts via human-made means of transports  or by dispersion of vectors through migratory birds or other parasitised hosts or through travel of infected hosts . In the latter case, it should however be noted that a population of competent vectors would need to occur in the area of new introduction for such a vector-borne infection to successfully establish . Undoubtedly, practicing the One Health approach globally requires great cooperation and coordination among institutions at national, regional, continental and intercontinental level, to ensure the constant exchange of information and the continuous advancement of surveillance and response systems. This should be done with the awareness that exchanging information among countries or regions can provide mutual benefits in terms of capacity building and thus preparedness and responsiveness in all geographies involved in such a dialogue.

Accordingly, improving capacity in Europe on the detection and surveillance of “exotic” vector-borne infections that are currently endemic in some parts of Africa, such as RVF, can also provide enhanced training opportunities to African scientists and researchers, who, in turn, may further potentiate their monitoring systems by exchanging views and personnel with non-endemic third countries.The interdisciplinary angle of this effort requires the consideration of parasitic and arthropod-borne infections under the lens of both life sciences and social sciences. Indeed, all types of control efforts can only be effective in a given area if designed, implemented and evaluated by taking into account the social determinants of health, in which people are born, grow, live, work and age. These include factors like socio-economic status, education, neighbourhood and physical environment, employment, and social support networks, as well as access to health care of communities .