Functional ecological analysis conducted at Kuruçay H¨ oyük, inland western Anatolia, also indicates that cereals were cultivated under moderate intensity . This is plausibly linked to differences in settlement size and the agricultural landscapes surrounding these sites compared to those in our study, which we discuss further below . The intensive manuring of Spanish vetchling at Liman Tepe resembles pulse cultivation strategies elsewhere within the Neolithic and Bronze Age Aegean . Nitrogen in manure becomes available to crops over the course of several years, meaning that the differences in δ15N values between Spanish vetchling and the cereals at Liman Tepe are the result of long-term differences in manuring intensity . This suggests that they were not grown in rotation. Analogy with the practices of recent non-mechanised farmers in the Aegean suggests that Spanish vetchling may have been grown on small plots close to the home; the difficulty of transporting manure and harvesting the brittle pods of low-growing pulses are both strong limiting factors to the scale and distance from the home of intensive cultivation.The cultivation of pulses on a smaller scale than cereals at Liman Tepe is also consistent with the overwhelming majority of the latter within the burnt house.The lower water status of Spanish vetchling than the glume wheats suggests that the more accessible plots were not those on the most well-watered soils in the Urla-Iskele plain.The spatial differentiation of cereal and pulse cultivation at Liman Tepe is a further point of departure from the intensive cultivation model, in which cereals and pulses are grown in rotation . Isotopic evidence for comparable manuring intensity between cereals and pulses is known from Neolithic Knossos , Kouphovouno and Halai , Greece, as well as several sites in Bronze Age northern Greece , and is consistent with rotation as part of intensive cultivation strategies at these sites. In this regard, arable farming at Liman Tepe again more closely resembles that of LBA Knossos, where pulses were more intensively manured and variably watered than cereals and were plausibly grown on ‘allotment’ plots within or close to the settlement.

Evidence for low-input cereal cultivation at Late Chalcolithic Bakla Tepe and Liman Tepe suggests that agricultural production resembled that of recent farmers in the Aegean and Anatolia engaged in extensive systems of land use. In these examples, fodder sprouting system extensive land use was linked to nucleated settlement patterns that pushed arable plots far from the home, reducing the viability of high inputs through manuring and tillage . Ethnographic data highlights the difficulties of hauling manure within non-mechanised contexts, with recent farmers in Greece dumping the majority within c. 500 m of settlements . Similarly, plots that received frequent weeding in Euboea, Greece, tended to be located within 1 km of settlements . In Fig. 9, we estimate the areas of agricultural land needed to support the occupants of Bakla Tepe and Liman Tepe in order to assess if similar restrictions shaped crop management strategies at these sites. Our estimates of the population size of each settlement are outlined in the supplementary material. While estimates of population size and areas of cultivated land rely on a range of assumptions and must therefore be interpreted with caution, Fig. 9 suggests that, at both sites, populations could be supported by intensively cultivated plots within 1 km of the settlements, but distances of over 500 m were inevitable. This is particularly stark at Liman Tepe, where the closest plots were a minimum of 150 m from the settlement and accessed via a weak sandbar. These data suggest that frictions of distance favoured extensive systems of land use. This plausibly resulted from the coastal location of Liman Tepe and the large settlement size of Bakla Tepe and can be contrasted against the higher-input cultivation visible at Çamlıbel Tarlası and Kuruçay H¨ oyük , both of which were small settlements located close to cultivable land. In recent examples, large scales of cultivation resulting from extensive land use created pronounced time stress during the harvest and to complete ploughing in advance of sowing . Under these conditions, the ability to mobilise agricultural labour was key to the success of arable production, and losses to household work forces a major hazard.

By the EBA, settlements in western Anatolia were organised around the longhouse , generally larger in size than earlier domestic structures and consistent with households of more extended family units . This is likely to have provided more reliable sources of domestic labour. For the smaller domestic units of the Late Chalcolithic, however, cooperation beyond the household may have been essential to maintaining a consistent labour force and thus the long-term sustainability of arable production. Cooperation at the supra household level is indicated by potentially communal extramural storage and high levels of social monitoring of farming-related activities at Bakla Tepe, consistent with social obligations to share food and spread agricultural risk through reciprocity . This focus on collective efforts, and the obligations to share in the fortunes of good and bad years that likely went with it, plausibly limited the potential for sustained productive inequality between Late Chalcolithic households. This likely contributed to the absence of overt wealth inequality that characterises the period, despite the emergence of extensive farming systems that may have favoured productive inequality over the long-term through inheritance of land-based wealth . Rather, it was plausibly the emergence of the longhouse in the EBA, occupied by larger farming households capable of maintaining greater autonomy in arable production, that facilitated the ability to hoard agricultural surplus and foster wealth inequality through strategic investment in social storage and the further expansion of agricultural production.Artefactual evidence supports a reorientation of the domestic economy towards household autonomy at many sites during this period, with agricultural storage and craft production frequently confined to the interiors of longhouses in the Izmir region. This coincides with the emergence of more elaborate forms of serving and consumption vessels on the Anatolian Plateau, indicating greater concerns with pouring and presenting and perhaps increasingly formal reciprocity between households. This appears to have fostered the emergence of institutions designed to dampen potential wealth inequality through social monitoring and/or the centralisation of farming products . Archaeobotanical evidence for the nature of agricultural production within EBA western Anatolia and its implications for the emergence of elite citadels is the focus of ongoing research. Fish is Bangladesh’s second most important agricultural crops, and its production supports the livelihoods and employment of millions of people.Bangladesh is entitled to Asia’s third-biggest aquatic biodiversity and the world’s largest inundated wetland. Thus, this country is assumed as one of the world’s best-suited fisheries regions . Inland aquaculture production was 51.3 million tonnes in 2018, accounting for 62.5 percent of global farmed food fish production. Asia dominated world aquaculture production in the last two decades with an 89 percent share . Aquaculture includes a wide range of species and production methods, with a variety of social, economic, nutritional, and environmental benefits. Aquaculture helps public health by producing a variety of nutritious seafood and ensures equal access to food . Fish production providing more than 20% of the average per capita animal protein consumption for about 3.3 billion people worldwide. Fish accounted for around 17% of total animal protein and 7% of all proteins consumed globally in 2017 . Bangladesh has a mostly flat topography, but it contains 12% of the total landmass of the hill, mostly located in the southeastern part of the country .

The indigenous peoples of the hilly area are neglected from sufficient income and standard of livelihood. The Chittagong Hill Tracts are the hilly region of Bangladesh with a geographical area of approximately 13,2945 km2 . To date, aquaculture activities have not been popular in CHT regions. Fish farming in creeks has a lot of potentials . CHT produces 14773.46 MT of fish per year, including culture, capture, and output from the Kaptai Lake . With 12696 MT of fish produced in 2019–20, the Kaptai lake is the most important contributor to CHT’s fish production . Small-scale aquaculture can significantly improve the livelihoods of marginalized peoples, including ethnic minorities. For this, expansion of aquaculture is necessary with due consideration for social, economic, and environmental aspects . Fish serves as one of the cheapest and most digestible proteins and meet nutritional needs, particularly in the hilly regions of northeast India. During 2015–16, the area produced approximately 426.59 thousand MT of fish, with aquaculture accounting for about half of the production . Aquaculture was popularized for increasing fish production and productivity from rural ponds of the tribal in most of the Northeast’s hill states of India . Different indigenous and exotic carp species have also been successfully cultured and induced bred to promote mid-hill aquaculture in Meghalaya . Fish farming in the waterways of the three hill districts has a good chance of producing a diversity of fish species . Appropriate strategies should be obtained for successful aquaculture in the hilly areas. The introduction of diversified species, polyculture methods, and integrated farming could increase aquaculture production in hilly areas . Fish culture in the hill districts of Bangladesh was being improved and expanded by the Department of Fisheries . The Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute has developed an experimental cage and pen culture in Kaptai Lake . Fish culture in creeks was successfully introduced to the CHT regions of Bangladesh. A creek’s production capacity is about 2100 kg/ha . The Hilly region of Bangladesh is blessed by various aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, streams, creeks,microgreen fodder system and reservoirs . A total of 1200 creeks were constructed surrounding Kaptai Lake, and these created huge potentiality of aquaculture in the hill . Indigenous people are the victims of the trap of poverty and the sufferers of high degrees of unemployment, and also vulnerable, marginalized, and disadvantaged groups in the world . They face problems like land loss, limited access to social services, and depend mainly on primitive techniques and technologies . Community-based aquaculture is a proven approach in rural areas to satisfy community needs, ensure safe protein sources, and provide sustainable use of water bodies . There are significant roles of CBA in coastal communities that help community people determine how to handle these resources . CBA is a highly proposed design for generating alternative income sources to improve impoverished coastal communities’ livelihood and food security . It ensures the participation of all stakeholders and develops a feeling of ownership in the decision-making process.

CBA is an effective tool for scientific aquaculture implementation since it is based on shared interest, which means working together without considering age and sex . According to Haque and Dey , community-based fish culture technology requires suitable topography and institutional arrangements. From 2005 to 2010, the CBFC was tested in several countries such as Bangladesh China, Mali, and Vietnam in different socio-cultural and institutional settings. In Bangladesh, CBFC was launched by WorldFish and its research partners through a project entitled “Community-based Fish Culture in Seasonal Floodplains and Irrigation Systems” . The CBFC system has significant potential benefits to expand aquaculture in rural areas . To develop the aquaculture sector of hill areas, basic needs are proper planning and updated information on resources, problems, and prospects of fish farming. Despite the large number of people involved in aquaculture and tremendous fisheries resources in the study area, the current status, available resources, and emerging problems of fish farming are not studied much. Therefore, the present study is aimed to identify prospects and problems of fish farming and introduce community-based fish farming for the development of aquaculture in the hilly area of Bangladesh. Dependency on remote districts for fish seed was evident in the study area. The study showed that mortality and costs related to fry transportation were high as these were brought from remote sources . The study clarifies the necessity of local hatcheries for supplying enough fish seeds to mitigate demand. Hatcheries are required to reduce transport constraints . Several internal and external factors cause high mortality during fish seed transportation, according to Das et al. . Therefore, the findings mean establishing community-based hatchery in the study area is necessary to minimize the identified constraints in seed price and transportation.