From there commodities were traded to Rhapta and the entrepôts along the Somalian coast. From a botanical point of view, the Cinnamon Road as described by Miller would have been a trade route for cassia in particular, as far as members of the genus Cinnamomum are concerned. True cinnamon is a native of Ceylon and the Malabar coast, and was traded by Arabs and Indians together with Indian cassia and malabathron, both originating from the same tree . These products reached the East African coast, where they became available to the Roman traders. It is also possible that Chinese cassia was brought to Barbarikon and Barygaza in northwest India, from where it could also have been transported further to Africa. Because of this indirect trade, it was wrongly believed by classical writers that cinnamon and cassia originated from East Africa. Camphor is not mentioned as a possible trade item by these sources. The foreign trade of the Roman Empire from Berenike and Myos Hormos to the ports of Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, and southern Arabia was based on coastal navigation. Direct, short-trade routes with India, on the other hand, crossed the Indian Ocean and presupposed advanced techniques for navigation and specific knowledge of wind and water. Seafaring in the Indian Ocean is determined by seasonal wind patterns and tides,blueberries in pots as well as the equatorial currents.

Sailing from East Africa and Arabia to India is possible from October until the end of March. In the rest of the year, sailing in the reverse direction should be done, though the sailing season is interrupted at different months in India, Arabia, and East Africa due to severe storm winds . Being acquainted with these conditions, having knowledge of advanced techniques for navigation, and being capable of building seaworthy ships were all vital conditions for participating in the maritime trade of this area, offering a wide spectrum of commodities including both daily necessities and highly esteemed luxury items. Seafaring in the Indian Ocean became an early tradition of people whose territory bordered the Indian Ocean, such as Arabs, Persians, Indians, and Malayan people . By annexing Egypt, the Greeks obtained access to the trading network connecting Africa, Arabia, and Asia. Alexander the Great founded Alexandria as a new capital at a strategic location in the Nile Delta, which soon became a center of commerce and culture. After Alexander’s death, the Ptolemaic dynasty was established in Egypt, which lasted for three centuries. Macedonian-based Greeks who respected Egyptian religion and customs ruled this dynasty. During the reign of Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, and Ptolemy III, Eurgetes, several harbors along the Red Sea coast were founded. From north to south, they were Arsinoe ; Philotera ; Myos Hormos ; Berenike ; Ptolemais Thêrôn , also called Epitheras and once the great hunting-station of the Ptolemies; Berenike-ad-Sabas; a second Arsinoe; and a third Berenike.

The last three sites were located along the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance to the Red Sea. Together with Myos Hormos, Berenike served as a gateway to the outside world. Commodities were imported from Africa south of the Sahara, Arabia, and India into the Roman Empire, the importance of both harbors evidenced by several contemporary sources. The part of the trade route between Berenike and Rome consisted of a caravan track through the Eastern Desert, followed by river transport over the Nile toward Alexandria, and ending with a sailing voyage over the Mediterranean Sea to Ostia, Portus Uterque , or Puteoli , the main maritime centers of Rome. The identification of Myos Hormos as present-day Quseir al-Qadim has only recently been proposed with cogent arguments by Peacock . Other sites along the Red Sea coast that have been proposed include Abu Sha’ar, Ras Abu Soma, and Safaga. Alternatively, Quseir al-Qadim had previously been identified by Whitcomb and Johnson as Leukos Limên. Peacock puts forward several arguments. First, the distance between Quseir al-Qadim and Berenike is 1,800 stades, as mentioned in the Periplus Maris Erythraei. In the second place, the winding entrance of the harbor, as described by Strabo , has recently been identified on satellite images some distance inland, its current location the result of progressive infilling of the lagoon. Furthermore, Strabo mentions that the route between Myos Hormos and Koptos was supported by several watering stations , which still exist. Berenike, the other transit port along the Red Sea, is located immediately south of the large Ras Banas peninsula.

The shallow lagoon south of Berenike must have functioned as a natural harbor, as described by Strabo . Sidebotham mentions piracy throughout Greek and Roman/Byzantine times , the strong prevailing winds in the northern part of the Red Sea, the protection against these winds by the Ras Banas peninsula, and the obstruction by shoals and coral reefs near the coast, especially northward of Jedda. It is because of the many accidents that still happen in our times with vessels in the Red Sea that insurance companies even today refuse to offer insurance cover. Another reason for the southern location of Berenike might be linked to minimizing the transport over land, which is much more time consuming and therefore more expensive. Berenike is located at the same latitude as Aswan and overland routes connecting Berenike with the Nile Valley link up with the navigable part of the Nile. The presence of rapids in the Nile between Aswan and Khartoum make the river unnavigable in this part. Also the logistics with respect to the protection of the relatively short overland routes that connect Berenike with the Nile Valley might have been taken into consideration. The seaborne voyage from Berenike to Africa, Arabia, and India is described in detail in the Periplus Maris Erythraei. The first part of this voyage led through the Red Sea. Leaving the Straits of Bab-elMandeb, the vessels could sail along the African coast as far as Rhapta and along the Arabian Peninsula with Barbarikon and Barygaza as their final destinations. Alternatively, they could cross the Arabian Sea toward the coast of southeast India and along the east coast of India up to the Ganges Delta . Strabo, referring to the Greek vessels sailing to India, also mentions that some of these vessels sailed as far as the Ganges . Transport of commodities between Berenike and the Nile was done by caravan transport. The caravan track had a northwest direction and forked halfway, one branch leading to Edfu and the other to Koptos . The tracks followed branches of the dry riverbeds that dissect the Red Sea mountains . The shortest road to the Nile Valley was the one that led to Edfu and measured some 310 km. The alternative route with the more-northern Koptos is 50 km longer. According to Pliny , it took twelve days to travel by camel from Koptos to Berenike, a journey made at night because of the heat. Along these caravan tracks, fortified watering stations were present at fixed distances and were used as resting places during the day. Since the sparse vegetation in these wadis would not have been sufficient for grazing by camels and animals that were transported to Berenike on the hoof, these stations must also have been provided with fodder. The presence of archers at these watering stations offered protection to the traders and their valuable commodities. From Edfu or Koptos the remaining trade route continued again by water transport, first along the Nile River to Alexandria and next across the Mediterranean Sea toward Rome. A main advantage of the Nile is that the direction of its current is northerly. The Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea,square plant pots whereas other large rivers used by long-distance traders, such as the Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, and Ganges, all fl ow from north to south, facilitating the transport of commodities from the hinterland to the littoral of the Indian Ocean. Because water transport was cheaper than transport over land, direct trade connections between Rome and India could compete even with indirect trade via land routes, although this seems to have been true only for the more-luxurious products such as black pepper . Depending on the Berenike–Nile route, which had either Edfu or Koptos as its destination, and the sea route across the Indian Ocean, only 3.5 percent to 4.5 percent of the distance between Rome and India was covered by caravan transport.

Obviously, the interest of the Greek and Roman traders in Berenike differed. The prime focus of the Greek activity along the Red Sea coast was dictated by military interest. Berenike and the more-southerly harbors were used to acquire war elephants and gold to facilitate payment of military expenses . Elephants were captured in the semi-evergreen and deciduous forests of present-day Ethiopia and transported by special ships to Berenike. From there, the animals had to walk along the caravan track to Edfu, where further transport north could be continued via water. It is assumed that the elephants used during the Punic Wars were of African origin, despite their reputation to be untamable. An inscription on the monument of Adulis , dated to the second half of the third century BC, mentions the capturing and training of elephants . More indirect evidence is provided by ancient graffiti on a wadi wall near the Abraq fort, approximately 100 km southwest of Berenike, representing a somewhat caricatural specimen with relatively small ears characteristic of the African species . In Roman times, the elephant trade was abolished and replaced by the import of ivory. The author of the Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions that large quantities of elephants and rhinoceroses were killed for this purpose. The excavations at Berenike have also produced archaeozoological evidence of the import of elephant and hippopotamus tusks throughout the Roman period . In addition to these enterprises dictated by military importance, commercial activities had been developed. In the first instance, their explorations were probably confined to littoral trade routes. Trading contacts with India were made only after 120 BC . The trade route with India became more important from the first century AD onward. Although the Greeks were already acquainted with the monsoon winds, as can be deduced from the reference by Posidonius to Eudoxus of Cyzicus as a sailor who traced and pointed out the monsoonal route to India at the end of the second century BC, it was the Romans who intensified the trade contacts with the already flourishing trade network in the Indian Ocean. This was facilitated by the improved economic prospects after the battle of Actium in 31 BC . It has been suggested that the gradual shift of a littoral trade route with northwest India as a destination to a transoceanic voyage to southwest India was determined by a change in interest in new commodities rather than by a discovery of the monsoon in stages . It is evident from Figure 1.1 that the sea voyages by Roman traders as described by the Periplus were connected with the Incense Road, the Silk Road, and the Cinnamon Road. This implies that the commodities available at the harbors that were visited were by definition not restricted to the hinterland, but could also have been imported from more-remote areas. Calling at ports along the Red Sea coast would have gained traders access to items from western Africa brought there by the Sudan Road, though part of the trade items would have been distributed along the Nile Road in a north–south direction. The voyage down to Rhapta is of particular interest because it gave traders access to products from the Malayan archipelago, which most probably not only included cinnamon and cassia but also other exotic communities. It is striking that the author of the Periplus only mentions some animal export products for Rhapta: ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shell, and nautilus shell. Finally, calling at Barbarikon and Barygaza in northwest India and sailing to the mouth of the Ganges also offered a market for commodities that originated from China and were supplied via a southern branch of the Silk Road . This pattern of interconnecting trade routes is further complicated by indirect trade in which Arab and Indian seafarers were engaged. This implies that certain commodities, such as those from India, were also available at ports along the Persian coast, southern Arabia, and East Africa. Thus, the import of Indian commodities at Berenike does not necessarily imply that Roman vessels returning from India transported them.